Why is adolescence sometimes considered a particularly difficult time for some children?

Adolescence can be a rather difficult and confusing time for people, it is set between the comforting childhood and the responsible adult, and this transition from one to the other can prove strenuous for most. It is a time where hard work becomes a regular thing and a harsh reality begins to seep in to a life which has been free of such concepts since birth.

Adolescence is the second decade of human life in which maturity and growth reach their peak,  however can also bring on an onset of other complicated behaviours, such as risk taking (Silveri, Tzilos, Pimentel & Yurgelun, 2004) and addiction ( Hyman & Malenka, 2001). It is a stage in life where there is a particular focus on the development of one’s identity, this can include such formations of; identifying occupational interests and vocational pathways, forming interpersonal relationships, and considering sex roles (Erickson, 1968). Along with the consideration of sex roles, an advancement of intimate romantic relationships and intense friendships will arise (Zimmer-Gembeck, 2002), however these types of connections with others… especially those in an affectionate context, are difficult to achieve without substantial progress of one’s own identity, this idea is termed “fusion of identity” (Erickson, 1968).

Erickson (1959) conceptualised a theory of psychosocial development which is made up of eight distinct stages, each stage highlights specific age groups and the complications that can transpire within these timeframes. The fifth stage is titled identity vs role confusion which focuses on the adolescent period. This stage discusses how the re-examination of one’s identity is used to identify favoured roles, nonetheless this realisation can be disrupted due to the uncomfortable perception one could have on their image, and until this is overcome the “virtue of fidelity” cannot be accomplished. “Fidelity” refers to the commitment one makes to others regardless of the difference in ideologies (Erickson, 1959). Within this period, explorations are used to form an identity, but failure to establish this can result in career ambiguity which in turn can lead to role confusion, or the more easily understood uncertainty of one’s place in society.

All though Erickson laid the foundations in understanding the potential difficulties that arise at certain points in life, he failed to consider the possibility that specific events could be gender dependent, and how the difference between male and female could have a considerable impact on their perception of life obstacles (Silveri, Tzilos, Pimentel & Yurgelun, 2004). Gilligan (1982), Miler (1991), and Surrey (1991) discuss the differentiation between genders. They talk on how the importance of relationships help develop and organise the self from the female perspective, whereas contrary to the latter, boys focus more on independent identity development. Thus the difference in experiences lead both male and females to encounter the world differently, with males taking an autonomous approach and females from a relational perspective. Throughout this paper I will continue to expand on the difficulties that can occur within adolescent life and how both social and cognitive factors could facilitate the onset of these adversities.

Adolescence is a time surrounded by mass confusion, even if your journey to adulthood is relatively smooth, there are times when you find your choices are questionable, and one common choice refers to future ambitions; such as job roles. School is essential when it comes to achieving these job roles however, it is not that easy for everyone. With the huge accumulation of pupils at secondary schools, personalities inevitably will clash and this can result in bullying. Bullying is a common problem with more than 40,000 children in 2013 calling child line regarding the matter (Childline, 2013). Brunstein, Marrocco, Kleinman, Schonfeld, and Gould (2007) performed a study which found that those being bullied or do the bullying are at a much higher risk from depression as opposed to those not experiencing bullying. A greater suicide risk was also discovered in the same study which proves the severity that bullying has on the mind and the potential academic disruptions it could cause leading to future complications.

Extending the discussion on suicide, Hansen and Lang (2011) discuss how there is a significant drop in suicides during the summer seasons at school, although during winter seasons these statistics increase, especially when the start of term is around the corner. This could be down to the influence of seasonal affective disorder (a disorder associated with late autumn and winter. Bringing on the onset of depression due to lack of light), or it could be linked to factors that adolescence just do not want to re-live for another year (such as bullying, academic pressure etc.) This is indicative of the issues within modern day educational establishments and their clear failure in recognising potential destructive symptoms within pupils. Although in many cases this is the exception and not the rule.  Loades and Mastroyannopoulou (2010) produced a study questioning 113 teachers on their ability to identify potential mental health issues, they found that participants were competent in recognising when a child presents a problem, however there was difficulty in labelling certain symptomatology, and this difficulty was enhanced when it came to analysing the difference between genders. Further research in these areas could help to create and promote effective strategies which can be used to highlight mental illness symptoms. Without such interventions, an adolescences quality of life could become significantly worse as a result of no support.

Complications within adolescence are not always due to education; some problems can be traced back to the prenatal stages. There have been links found between behavioural learning difficulties in adolescence and prenatal alcohol exposure (Olson, Streissguth, Sampson, Barr, Bookstein, & Thiede, 1997).

             Olson, et al. (1997) found that even socially drinking whilst pregnant can have a significant effect on future behaviour and cognition, resulting in potential learning difficulties. With a predisposition towards difficulty in learning, frustration can begin to manifest resulting in a loss of interest for any type of academic work, this could lead towards interests in other things; such as antisocial behaviour. Savolainen et al. (2012) looked into this area and discovered a link between how the absence of academic skill correlates with antisocial risk factors. A similar study which is not on antisocial behaviour but more directed towards risk taking behaviour sheds light on depressive disorders through the analyses of sexual partners. It was found that adolescents of either gender who have had multiple sex partners with the absence of contraception are more likely to exhibit depressive disorders (Kosunen, Kaltiala‐Heino, Rimpelä, & Laippala, 2003). Studies like these show how issues in adolescence and cognitive flaws can be interrelated. When going through adolescence problems can be common; it is natural. Although dealing with them when you suffer from things like depression or learning difficulties can make a bad situation worse, increasing the chances of future implications.

When identifying the root to troublesome experiences in adolescence, it will not always lead back to cognitive influences. Social factors can be as equally responsible. A classic example of this would be peer pressure and conformity. Santor, Messervey, and Kusumakar (2000) performed a study on 148 adolescent boys and girls; finding that both peer pressure, and social conformity are strong predictors of risky behaviours such as substance abuse and sexual attitudes. Even though these outcomes are not always intentional to begin with, the need for social acceptance can cloud the mind into thinking that it is worth it as long as you have gained a level of social acceptance. On the other hand, if your peers alienate you deeming you socially unaccepted, then this can trigger an array of difficulties with the main one being aggression. This was found in a study looking into 114 mixed race boys. Biases within schools particularly in elementary showed a subsequent increase in aggression (in those considered socially unfavourable as a result of their skin colour) when adolescence is reached (Lochman & Wayland, 1994). Being considered an “outcast” can have its consequences. If the internal frustration of isolation is not expressed through impulsive aggressive behaviour then it can come in the form of depression (Witvliet, Brendgen, van Lier, Koot, & Vitaro, 2010) and social anxiety (La Greca, & Lopez, 1998).

All of the points discussed prior to this paragraph can occur even in a safe and secure family environment; which is going to lead me on to discussing the repercussions of living in an abusive home. Whitbeck, Hoyt, and Ackley (1997) distributed a questionnaire among homeless adolescents, and in doing so found that a majority of them were living on the streets because it was considered a better alternative that living in an abusive household. This is an example of how terrible an abusive household can be, especially when you feel the need to become homeless. Homelessness is a very serious matter, however abuse encountered from a young age can lead to an array of psychological issues such as; post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and separation anxiety disorder (Pelcovitz, Kaplan, DeRosa, Mandel, & Salzinger, 2000). These repercussions could complicate the adolescence stage even further. Even if an abusive household was only experienced prior to the reaching of the adolescence stage, it can still lead to poor adjustments through adolescence and early adulthood therefor disrupting your way of life (Bank, & Burraston, 2001).

As unfortunate as some of these studies are. They do help to highlight how social factors can lead to implications such as depression (through isolation, bullying, or abuse), or how cognitive factors can worsen as a result of things such as seasonal affective disorder, isolation or lack of support. One common pattern found throughout this paper and the studies discussed show how there can be a fine distinction between both social and cognitive factors and trying to determine this can see you faced with a certain level of ambiguity. One could experience difficulties as a result of a predisposition such as depression, but this may not manifest until that same individual experiences a certain social scenario such as social exclusion or bullying. Therefore we do not know what to blame the depression on; cognitive factors or social factors? But in such cases a perspective from both could prove to be the best solution. Throughout this paper we have looked at some of the original research from Erickson and more recent research from an array of researchers who help in promoting the harshness of adolescence. This research plus future endeavours may help in the creation of support and coping strategies to those in need of it. The more teenagers who receive help, the more chances of a stable society being achieved for future generations.

Due to the nature of this paper adolescence has been made to sound like a ruthless and unpleasant experience, however a lot of these cases only makes up a small percentage of the population and should not be generalised. Even though adolescence can be difficult it is also a time where you really begin your life, and become independent as a person; Learning new experiences and making life-long friends. Most obstacles can be overcome, which helps strengthen your ability to deal with similar occurrences later in life. It is these experiences that shape you as a person and prove to be the foundation of what hopes to be a long and satisfying life.

References

Brunstein Klomek, A., Marrocco, F., Kleinman, M., Schonfeld, I. S., & Gould, M. S. (2007). Bullying, depression, and suicidality in adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(1), 40-49.

La Greca, A. M., & Lopez, N. (1998). Social anxiety among adolescents: Linkages with peer relations and friendships. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 26(2), 83-94.

Hansen, B., & Lang, M. (2011). Back to school blues: Seasonality of youth suicide and the academic calendar. Economics of Education Review, 30(5), 850-861.

Childline (2013). What’s affecting children in 2013?. NSPCC. Retrieved December 11. 2014, from www.nspcc.org.uk.

Santor, D. A., Messervey, D., & Kusumakar, V. (2000). Measuring peer pressure, popularity, and conformity in adolescent boys and girls: Predicting school performance, sexual attitudes, and substance abuse. Journal of youth and adolescence, 29(2), 163-182.

Pelcovitz, D., Kaplan, S. J., DeRosa, R. R., Mandel, F. S., & Salzinger, S. (2000). Psychiatric disorders in adolescents exposed to domestic violence and physical abuse. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(3), 360-369.

Kosunen, E., Kaltiala‐Heino, R., Rimpelä, M., & Laippala, P. (2003). Risk‐taking sexual behaviour and self‐reported depression in middle adolescence, a school‐based survey. Child: care, health and development, 29(5), 337-344

Olson, H. C., Streissguth, A. P., Sampson, P. D., Barr, H. M., Bookstein, F. L., & Thiede, K. (1997). Association of prenatal alcohol exposure with behavioural and learning problems in early adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(9), 1187-1194.

Lochman, J. E., & Wayland, K. K. (1994). Aggression, social acceptance, and race as predictors of negative adolescent outcomes. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33(7), 1026-1035.

Savolainen, J., Hughes, L. A., Mason, W. A., Hurtig, T. M., Taanila, A. M., Ebeling, H., & Kivivuori, J. (2012). Antisocial propensity, adolescent school outcomes, and the risk of criminal conviction. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(1), 54-64. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00754.x

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Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., & Ackley, K. A. (1997). Abusive family backgrounds and later victimization among runaway and homeless adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 7(4), 375-392.

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Loades, M. E., & Mastroyannopoulou, K. (2010). Teachers recognition of children’s mental health problems. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 15(3), 150-156.

Witvliet, M., Brendgen, M., van Lier, P. A., Koot, H. M., & Vitaro, F. (2010). Early adolescent depressive symptoms: prediction from clique isolation, loneliness, and perceived social acceptance. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 38(8), 1045-1056.

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